Owing to the Government’s recent restrictions on movement as a result of the Coronavirus, the traditional Maundy Money presentation by HM The Queen on Maundy Thursday, the Thursday before Easter, was unable to go ahead. The coins were ready and the recipients chosen, so in a break with an age-old tradition, the coins were blessed in a special service at the Chapel Royal and then posted to the worthy recipients.

The Maundy ceremony has survived earlier plagues; Elizabeth I deputised it to her Almoner in 1563 because of a plague prevalent at the time. Charles I also delegated the task to his Almoner in Oxford in 1643 for the same reason; as a result of the plague, entry into Oxford was forbidden by members of the public, but as the recipients were already within the City the ceremony went ahead. The Almoner is recorded as having bent down and then kissed his own thumb instead of the recipients’ feet. Charles II, who was keen to reintroduce the ceremony which had lapsed during the Civil War and the Commonwealth period, braved an outbreak of plague in 1661 and personally carried out the ceremony. Despite a worse outbreak in 1663, which caused the cancellation of his planned procession and lavish celebrations on his return from his Scottish coronation, Charles II again personally carried out the ceremony.

The ceremony owes its origin to Christ washing the feet of the Disciples. The pedilavium ceremony – washing the feet of the poor – is in memory of this act of humility, and can be traced back to the fourth century in Northern Italy and Spain, and was soon followed elsewhere. The monarchy adopted it when Edward II washed the feet of the poor on 21 March 1326, and Edward III subsequently added gifts of clothing, food and money to the ceremony. The number of recipients was originally twelve, reflecting the Twelve Disciples until Henry IV changed the number so that it represented the monarch’s age. This year there were 94 male and 94 female recipients. The Maundy money is derived from the alms given to the poor; the name ‘Maundy’ is thought to derive from the Latin word Mandatum (commandment), to ‘Do this in remembrance of me’.

The tradition of the monarch personally presenting the coins ceased in 1699, and the washing of the feet ceased in 1737; the actual presentation was then usually carried out by the Lord High Almoner, whose small fee is paid in Maundy money, on behalf of the monarch.  However, the monarch did sometimes attend the service, watching from the royal pew in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, as Victoria did in 1842. Presentation by the monarch was reintroduced in 1932 by King George V and has been continued ever since until today.

The original ceremony of washing the feet is now symbolised by officials wearing aprons and carrying towels, and HM The Queen carries a traditional nosegay – a sweet-smelling bouquet designed to protect the holder from the smell of the unwashed.

Over the years the number and type of other items given as well as the coins have varied hugely, sometimes including the monarch’s cloak. In the reign of the ‘boy king’ Edward VI extra money was given instead of his cloak, as it would have been too small to be of use, and the number of recipients was raised to twelve. Recipients usually received some clothes as part of the gifts; this tradition lasted for the men until 1882, but from 1724 female recipients received a cash allowance in lieu of clothes, to avoid the unseemly sight of them undressing and trying on new clothes during the service. These extra gifts are now represented by a small cash payment in a red leather purse: the latest issues of a commemorative £5 coin and a commemorative 50 pence, a total of £5.50, which represents £3 for clothing, £1.50 for food and £1 in lieu of the gown.

Each recipient is also presented with a white leather purse containing the Maundy coins, which represent the original gift of cash. The Maundy money has been issued as a set of four silver coins, from the fourpence to a penny, from the time of George II or possibly George III, but before that, it consisted mainly of silver pennies. Earlier small silver denominations, although traditionally known as Maundy money, are now thought to have been struck as circulating coins.

Available from Baldwin’s is a set of Maundy Money issued by Queen Victoria, struck in 1875. Queen Victoria was then aged 55, so there would have been 55 male and 55 female recipients, each receiving coins to the total value of 55 pence – five sets (total value 10 pence each) and a few more Maundy coins to the value of five pence, probably mainly pennies. Further examples were made available to the public – between just over 4,000 and nearly 8,500 of each of the different denominations were struck, still a very low issue by monetary standards.

The 1875 set is in mint condition, as it would have been on the day it was presented, with the addition of some light and pleasant colourful toning acquired over the years of storage. The attractive young head portrait on the obverse is by William Wyon, and the reverses were designed by Jean Baptiste Merlen.

---

This article is written by Jeremy Cheek, recently retired numismatic consultant to the Royal Collection and world coin consultant for A. H. Baldwin and Sons.

On 19th June, 1566, King James I was born to Mary Queen of Scots and Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley.  Only a year later, the family’s residence was destroyed in an explosion, with Lord Darnley found murdered in his garden.

Two months after the incident, Mary Queen of Scots married the fourth Earl of Bothwell James Hepburn, who was widely believed to have orchestrated the murder of her late husband.

The Scottish people were so moved by the idea that they staged an uprising and the queen was imprisoned in the Loch Leven Castle. She was forced to abdicate the throne in favour of her one-year-old son.

The child was crowned James VI of Scots in July 1567 at the Stirling Castle.

After the death of Queen Elizabeth I, James VI ascended the throne of England and Ireland on the 25^th July, 1603 at Westminster Abbey.

He ruled for 20 years, until his death on 27^th March 1625 at age 58.

King James VI and I: The skilled yet contentious writer and literary advocate

King James was viewed, both at the time and now, as a genuine intellectual, a man of letters, with a particular penchant for theology. In 1597 – 1599, he wrote both The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift), in which he outlined a political theory on the divine right of kings. In the True Law of Free Monarchies he presented his beliefs and reasoning as to why monarchs are higher beings and presented an absolutist idea of monarchy. Louise XIV of France (1643-1715) also promoted this same theory of absolutism; the genesis of these ideas goes further back to early Mesopotamia and Dravidian culture.

King James was also responsible for the landmark translation of the Bible, which was subsequently named the King James Bible with the first edition surfacing circa 1611. During his reign, we also witness The Pilgrim Fathers’, the first English puritans voyage to America in the Mayflower at around 1620.

He aspired to literary fame, translating with ease the French poet Salluste de Bartas and the Psalms of David into English doggerel. Known for championing Scottish literary, poetry and music, James furthered these fields when he ascended the English throne in 1603.

His role as active literary participant and patron made him a defining figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which reached its zenith during his reign.

Treachery, Progress and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605

King James’ life was filled with attempts on his life, paranoia and, even by modern standards, high drama. In 1582, at the young age of 16, he was kidnapped by conspirators led by William Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie and held prisoner in Ruthven Castle.

He escaped the following year, and William Ruthven was put to death for his efforts. By 1600, the King believed the new Earl of Gowrie and his brother had renewed sinister machinations on his life, with more potential assassination plots to play out, the two Ruthvens were killed pre-emptively.

Nevertheless, despite a dysfunctional upbringing and constant emotional upheaval, he had managed to run Scotland by trying to add some middle-ground between the Catholics and Protestants. Refusing to persecute the Catholics, he was able to keep the Presbyterian Kirk on a proverbial leash whilst simultaneously collecting a handsome allowance from Elizabeth I in England.

His ascension to the throne in England was diametrically opposed to his rule in Scotland. On his arrival in England, the ever-increasing expensive War with Spain had halted, the situation in Ireland had also settled down. However, the new King had found himself short of money; naturally, Parliament opposed him on his demands for assistance.

The Parliament of the day had taken umbrage to his ideals of royal predominance and his inherent favouritism towards the Scots. The government found itself at an impasse with the new King on many levels, mainly due to his general proclivities and overall outlook, what would be simply called today “incompatible ideologies.”

In many ways, King James was more the intellectual than an astute or pragmatic sovereign. This is best exemplified in his foreign affairs and continued opposition to the war. His default-setting was that of peace, taking pride in expounding the ideas of pacification than imperialism.

He again came under attack for appeasing or conciliating Spain after the outbreak of the thirty years War, in 1618, between the Catholics and Protestants. This was seen as a myopic continuation of his laissez-faire behaviour.

In sum, it seemed as though the king was fixated on being the embodiment of divine rule, however, had not done enough to factor in or win the respect of his subjects and Parliament. In that sense, he was a walking contradiction, who always chose theory over practice, perhaps even careless and short-sighted in his quid-pro-quo requests to Parliament.

The following (verbatim extract) primary source delivered by James to Parliament on the 21st March 1610, epitomizes his views if not attitude. From this source one can see why Parliament struggled to work in tandem with him, or why they perhaps, more accurately, held reservations to his modus operandi.

“The state of Monarchy is the supremist thing upon earth; for kings are not only God’s lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon Gods throne – Kings are justly called Gods for that they exercise a manner or resemblance of divine power on earth.”

Albeit eleven years later, The Commons did respond, find below ‘The Commons Protestation’ 18^th December 1621. This source is a response to James forbidding the Commons to ‘meddle with anything concerning our government or deep matters of state’ and that ‘we think ourselves very free and able to punish any man’s misdemeanour in Parliament’ The Parliament retort to his ecclesiastical threats, is as follows:

“That the liberties, franchises, privileges and jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England –Every member of the House of Commons hath, and of right ought to have, freedom of speech to propound, treat, reason and bring to a conclusion the same.”

The Coinage of King James VI AND I

Insofar as numismatics, King James’ English coins were separated into three sections; first coinage (1603-5), second coinage (1604-19) and the third coinage (1619-24)*. Within this, there are several busts in place, legend inscriptions and mintmarks indicating the year range of issue.

King James has always been a popular monarch to collect, not least, as he is the first Stuart King. His gold hammered series are especially attractive and elaborate containing a variety of designs and motifs, as seen in the second coinage Ship Ryal of fifteen shillings and the later third coinage Spur-Ryal with facing lion.

We also have on offer an impressive James I Rose Ryal of thirty shillings, second coinage hammered fine gold piece, struck between 1606-1607, mintmark Escallop. These coins were struck in 23-carat gold, an arresting coin depicting the King enthroned in all of his royal regalia, a splendid example for the discerning House of Stuart enthusiast.

The Rose Ryal of James I was the Stuart equivalent of the late Tudor sovereign, appearing in his second coinage, introduced in 1604. According to the work of Lord Stewartby there are five obverse dies A-E and a further eleven reverse dies A – K. The obverse dies generally can be worked out to where the sceptre points, the reverse dies from the relation of the sepals of the Rose to legend lettering. Our piece appears to be Stewartby dies A + E.

---

Bibliography

J. J. North – ‘English Hammered Coinage’ Volume II, Spink & Son 1991

S. J. Houston – ‘James I – Seminar Studies in History’ Longman, 1973

J. Rushwoth – ed, Historical Collections of Private Passages of state (8 Vols, London, 1659-1701), I, 53, pp 279-288

Lord Stewartby ‘Rose Ryals of James I 1605-17’, British Numismatic Journal 71 (2001) pp 87-90

Further reading ‘The English Silver Coins of James’ H.W Morrieson – BNJ. 1907 – pp165-178

*Broadly speaking Coins can be split into different coinages, this normally helped separate and segregate certain denominations, bust styles and portrait types, initial marks and legend inscriptions. It also helped separate new or equivalent denominations. In relation to James I, a good example is as follows; the fine Gold Unite of twenty-shillings that appeared in his second coinage, was replaced subsequently by a lighter twenty-shilling coin, the Laurel, in 1619 as part of the newer Third coinage. The Third coinage marks this sequential transition, a logical way of marking change, perhaps.

This article is a brief look into the most interesting historical denominations of Italy, with a particular focus on the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. We will explore a few coins that came from Italy and had a great political and commercial significance. Some of these were adopted throughout Europe through booming Florentine, Venetian and Milanese trade. Some of them also have a distinguished artistic significance, especially for disseminating styles of portraiture.

Fiorino d’oro: the most successful gold coin of Medieval Europe

In the middle of the 13^th century, the wealthy Republic of Florence issued a gold coin that would become so successful, that it was copied throughout Europe, from France to Hungary. On the obverse, the coin had a fleur-de-lis (a stylized lily flower) and the coat of arms of Florence. The reverse depicted the Florentine patron saint, John the Baptist. After the image of the fleur-de-lis, the coin was called Fiorino d’oro (gold florin). The Fiorino was the first gold coin in Central and Western Europe to play a significant commercial role since around 500 years. At that time, gold was used only in Southern Italy, Sicily and Spain, which were under Arabic influence. However, the increase of trade with the Levant eventually brought enough gold to Florence to entice minting gold coinage – first in Italy, and later all over Europe.

The Fiorino d’oro was struck from 1252 to 1523 with no major change in design or metal content standard. The weight was chosen to equal the value of one silver lira in the local money of the mid-13^th century. Already in the 14^th century, a hundred and fifty European states and local coin-issuing authorities made their own copies of the Fiorino. On other countries’ Fiorinos, the inscriptions were changed and local heraldic devices substituted the fleur-de-lis.

Venetian Lira: The power of the Venetian Republic

The Venetian silver Lira was one of the currencies that became popular in the Eastern Mediterranean trade due to the economic success and maritime domination of the Venetian Republic. It was in use from 1472 to 1807 in Venice, throughout Venetian Renaissance and Baroque periods. It was subdivided into 20 Soldi, each of 12 Denari. The Venetian ducat (Ducato), on the other hand, was equal to 124 Soldi, whilst the Tallero was equal to 7 Lire. The Venetian Lira was the currency of Venice until 1807, when the Lira of Napoleon’s Kingdom of Italy replaced it.

Silver Testone: A catalyst of Renaissance portraiture

The denomination of silver Testone was first introduced in Italy after 1470. The first Testone was commissioned in Milan by the Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza in 1474, possibly even earlier. In scholarship, the appearance of the Testone is one of the events that signified a transition from Medieval to early modern coinage. This denomination was imitated in many European countries, starting with Louis XII’s France. These coins are also considered artistically beautiful, contributing to the development of Renaissance portraiture. The Testone is weighed between 9.5g and 10g of silver. The coins proliferated in the duchies of the north of Italy, especially around Milano.

Testoni differ according to the mint they were produced in, showcasing numerous mintmarks of cities and noble families. These coins also inspired the English Testoons and encouraged the Renaissance style of portraits of monarchs in England.

The first pope to mint Testoni was Sixtus IV, and they bore an effigy of the pope Leo X. In the 16^th and 17^th centuries the Testoni of the Papal States became widespread and subsequent popes had their own effigies and coats of arms depicted on these coins. The Testone was produced in the Papal States until the beginning of the 19^th century.

Denaro of Aquileia: The wealth of the distinguished episcopal state

During the Roman Empire, Aquileia was a notable Roman city that had a mint. The production of coinage resumed when it became the ecclesiastical principality in the early Middle Ages known as the Patriarchate of Aquileia (1077-1420). The Patriarchate extended its political control of the area: it included the Friulian lands up to Cadore, the city of Trieste and the central parts of the Istrian peninsula.  At its peak, the Patriarchate of Aquileia was one of the largest states in Italy. The Denaro, of course, derives its name from the ancient Roman denarius. In the early Middle Ages, it was Charlemagne that instituted Denaro in the Holy Roman Empire with his monetary reform and Aquilea was an ecclesiastical state of the Empire, with Denaro and Soldo as the primary currencies.

The creation of coins was entrusted to the confraternity of monetarii with concessions lasting from two to four years and the weight, quantity and alloy of the coins was specified with each concession. The minting generated significant revenue for the patriarchal coffers.

In the early 13^th century, under Volchero (1204–1218) and Bertrand (1218–1251), the Patriarchate flourished economically and culturally, supported by highly developed infrastructure and trade. It is interesting that the Aquileian Patriarchs were among the first to insert their heraldic coats of arms on the coins in Italy. In 1420, Aquileia was acquired by Republic of Venice, its long-time rival.

This article is written by Sales Executive Ema Sikic.

The rich, fertile lands of Italy and Sicily were irresistible for Greek colonists. Hundreds of new cities were founded during the 1^st millennium BC, along the coastlines of Southern Italy and Sicily. Some became hugely successful trading centres and, as in mainland Greece, there were rivalries and ultimately clashes between the various city-states which vied for power over parts of the peninsula. These swathes of new cities gave Italy and Sicily the name ‘Magna Graecia’ or Greater Greece.

Coins originally emerged from Lydia and Ionia around 650 BC and within a century the most powerful cities in the Greek world were issuing their own coins. These included a handful of states in Magna Graecia. The coins of Metapontum in Lucania are some of the most instantly recognisable from the ancient world. This particular city owed most of its vast wealth to the abundance of barley it was able to produce in its fertile land. The inhabitants chose to adorn their coins with a large grain-ear, either as a reference to their wealth, or an etymological link (as Monterio suggests) to the Greek word for the autumn harvest, metoporinos, which would have seen the gathering of the city’s grain crop.

The earliest coins of Greek Italy share a unique feature in their design. Working on their own weight standard, the silver nomos coins issued by Croton, Sybaris and Metapontum featured their various designs on both sides of the coin. Looking at the obverse, the coins appear much like any other but when turned over, it is obvious that the reverse exhibits the same design but in an incuse (concave) form. The result is a coin which looks as if its design had been stamped right through, almost like a seal. Exactly why the cities of Southern Italy chose to make their coins in this way is uncertain. It has been suggested that the great mathematician Pythagoras was responsible – he had, after all, lived in all three of the cities which produced the earliest of these incuse coins. This theory is considered somewhat farfetched, and Monterio suggests it is more likely those responsible for creating these had no concept of what would later become the traditional model of a coin – the head of a deity/ruler on one side and a design on the other. The die engravers of Magna Graecia were in effect pioneers, creating what they saw fit in this new medium, coinage, which was barely a century old.

Given the city’s apparent reliance on the grain, it shouldn’t come as a surprise that Demeter, the Greek goddess of the harvest, appears on later coins produced in Metapontum. The head of Demeter is always represented as a young woman, frequently engraved in exquisite beauty to a very high level of quality. Demeter appears in a variety of different styles, leading Hill (2012) to suggest that the artists responsible for her engraving may have taken inspiration from real life.

The helmeted head of a bearded man appears on nomos coins struck in Metapontum, around the 4^th Century BC. The portrait that of Leukippos, the alleged founder of the city, though later historians from the ancient world ascribe the foundation of Metapontum to various other figures. Regardless, the artistically accomplished portraits of the bearded Leukippos depict the man wearing a Corinthian Helmet, and the trademark ear of barley still appears on the coin, as it had in the centuries before. The Leukippos issues are some of the few coins from the Greek world to depict the portrait of a city’s founder and are, as such, fascinating.

---

References

Hill, P (2012) The Prospero Collection. London. Baldwin’s

Monterio, L. D. (2006) A Silver Stater from Metapontum in the Kelsey Museum. Michigan. University of Michigan

The Black Prince was known as Edward of Woodstock during his lifetime. It is traditionally said that his nickname came from his armour, but there is no contemporary evidence for this; it was first quoted in documents in the 1530’s.

Edward the Black Prince (1330-76) was the oldest son of Edward III (1327-77), and consequently heir to the throne. However he pre-deceased his father, so his father was succeeded by the Black Prince’s son Richard, who was crowned as Richard II.

Edward The Black Prince was one of the original Knights of the Garter and was the first Duke created in England, as the Duke of Cornwall in 1337; he was later created Prince of Wales in 1343 and Prince of Aquitaine in 1362. In the previous year he had ignored marrying as a diplomatic tool, and married in a love match his widowed cousin Joan, Countess of Kent, who was famed for her beauty. He moved with her from their home in Berkhamsted, Herts to live in his new domain in France.

Edward was renowned in his own lifetime as one the greatest knights of his age, a model of chivalry and one of the outstanding commanders of the Hundred Years War. At the battle of Crécy (1346), aged just 16, Edward was in the forefront of the fighting and provided charismatic leadership, while his father commanded his men from the height of a nearby windmill. Towards the end of the battle, the blind king John of Bohemia defiantly charged towards the melée bound to his knights by ropes, and the whole group were killed. Edward was so impressed by this that he adopted John’s badge and motto, an ostrich feather and the words Ich Dien, which is probably the origin of the Prince of Wales’ feathers and motto.

Edward campaigned in France for the next ten years, and at the battle of Poitiers (1356), in a major victory, he defeated and captured the French king John II (the Good), for whom a huge ransom of £500,000 was paid. English archery again proved decisive.

In 1367 he lead an expedition to Spain to restore the deposed Don Pedro of Castile to the throne, which he achieved in another notable victory at the battle of Najerá, in northern Castile. He contracted an illness there, as did many of his troops – it was said that scarcely one in five of his soldiers returned home – and Edward returned to his home in Aquitaine. While there he was not a successful administrator, leading to a revolt, which resulted in the brutal sacking of Limoges (1370). He returned to England in the following year in poor health, gave back the rule of Aquitaine to his father in 1372, and died in 1376 at the age of 45.

Pavillon d’or of Edward the Black Prince

This gold Pavillon d’or was struck at Bordeaux in Gascony, Aquitaine, of which Edward was Prince. No coins were struck in England in his name.

The coin was introduced near the beginning of his reign, in or before 1364. It was valued at 60 sterlings or 25s 0d bordelaise (a currency system of Aquitaine), and was originally known as a Noble Guyennois. The letter B at the end of the reverse legend denotes the mint of issue.

In a design reminiscent of the age of chivalry and the feudal system, we see the celebrated military commander standing below a gothic arch or portico, a device used extensively in the beautiful series of gold coins in the Gothic style in France and the Low Countries in the 14th century. The arch on this coin is particularly elaborate, with a tower, Geometric tracery windows and flying buttresses. The abbreviated legend translates as Edward, first-born of the king of England, Prince of Aquitaine. The four ostrich feathers on either side of him are the newly adopted badge of the Prince of Wales, borrowed from John the Blind of Bohemia whom he defeated at the battle of Crécy. The Prince is holding a sword, and wears an ermine mantle; two leopards are visible at his feet.

The elaborate, highly decorated design on the reverse is barely recognisable as the original form of a simple cross from which it was ultimately derived. The English and French symbols of a leopard and lis appear in the angles. In the centre of the cross a small letter E (for Edward) indicates that this is from the second, slightly later issue, replacing a small rosette in the centre of the first issue coins. The design of the second issue differs marginally from the first, in the detail of the Gothic arch and particularly in the improved clarity of the leopards at the Prince’s feet.

These attractive coins are rarely found in really good condition and clearly struck. This specimen is particularly well preserved, and very well struck for the issue. It has a distinguished pedigree, dating back to the famous Montagu collection of the late nineteenth century, one of the largest and most famous of all British collections.

Ex Montagu collection, Sotheby, 17 July 1897 (lot 336) (realised £4/4/-)
Ex Hirsch auction XX, lot 327

Coins from the ancient world are nothing short of fascinating. Anyone with even a passing interest in history, art or archaeology will almost certainly find coins minted in Greek and Roman times worthy of intrigue. This may be down to the particular emperor on a Roman coin, or the deity, or in this case animal, that takes pride of place on the metal.

Crab coins are some of the most instantly recognisable from antiquity. The constellation Cancer is, of course, a crab. The animal was also associated with the sea god, Poseidon. Minted in the ancient city of Akragas (modern day Agrigento) in Sicily, the elegantly engraved design of an eight-legged crustacean never fails to draw attention – at museums or coin fairs. This may be for one simple reason; how often do you see a crab on a coin? The answer is, rarely. The Carian island of Kos also issued coins with a similar motif. The name ‘Kos’ comes from the ancient Greek word for crab and hence, it was chosen as an emblem of the island.

Kos’ connection to the crab leaves little room for debate, but why did the inhabitants of Akragas choose to adorn their coins with the creature? Symbols of power and wealth in the ancient world, coins were a method of spreading the political ideals and values of the societies that produced them. Akragas, a relatively young city-state, was founded around 580 BC, and within only a few decades was issuing its own coinage. The city found prosperity in fertile farmland, and focused on strengthening its naval power. The crab was likely chosen as a symbol of Akragas’ strength: a master of the land and the sea. By the turn of the 5^th Century BC, Akragas had grown in power and, on Sicily, was second only to the enormous city of Syracuse.      

The city’s coinage, like many of the Greek world, consisted of silver Tetradrachms, Didrachms and smaller denominations. Also issued was a short-lived series of exceptionally rare decadrachms. Bronze coins were also issued for use as small change. The crab motif is actually the reverse of the coin, and appears in a shallow concave (or ‘incuse’) circle. Some rare pieces depict a crab with its carapace taking the form of a human face. The local river god may be behind this strange addition to the design. On the obverse an eagle, representing Zeus, the king of the Greek pantheon, takes pride of place.

Unfortunately for Akragas, following the period of prosperity in the 5^th Century the city was sacked by Carthaginian forces in 406 BC. While it would never recover its status as a powerful ancient Greek city, its legendary crab coinage harks back to a time when Akragas held power over land and sea.

The second Stuart King

Charles I was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. He was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland. After his father inherited the English throne in 1603 as James I, he moved to England. After the death of his older brother Henry Frederick in 1612, he became heir apparent to the three kingdoms. Charles I ascended to the throne in 1625, the same year he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France, who was a Roman Catholic.

The gold Unite denomination was first produced during the reign of King James I and named after the legends on the coin that indicated the king’s intention of uniting the two kingdoms of England and Scotland. Numerous issues of gold unites, valued at twenty shillings, were produced at the Tower Mint throughout the reign of Charles I, both when the mint was under the king’s control and later when it was under the control of the Parliament.

Mounting discontent towards the King

As King, Charles firmly believed in the divine right of kings to govern according to their own conscience. His actions were viewed by many as the actions of an absolute monarch and generated mistrust. He was fiercely opposed by the Parliament that sought to curb his royal prerogatives – multiple quarrels ensued. King’s policies were widely opposed, especially the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent. Because he was married to a Roman Catholic, his religious policies were widely opposed as well and ignited the opposition consisting of Reformed English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters. His views were deemed ‘too Catholic’ especially since he failed to help the Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years’ War. The position of the English and Scottish parliaments was strengthening and the discontent was mounting.

Start of the War and Wellington Declaration

In 1642, both sides began to raise arms. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array, and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia. Needless to say that the attempted negotiations led to no success and Charles I raised his royal standard at Nottingham on 22 August 1642. The King and the Parliament were now at war. King’s forces controlled (approximately) the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. His court was now set up at Oxford. The Parliament forces controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy.  

After raising his standard, the King proceeded into Shropshire, arriving in Wellington on 19 September 1642. On 20 September he issued the famous Wellington Declaration declaring that he would uphold ‘the Protestant Religion, the Laws of England, and the Liberty of Parliament’.

This Triple Unite represents the largest hammered gold coins ever made. This is coin was minted in Oxford and issued in 1642. This was because the Tower mint fell into the hands of the Parliament – Charles was forced to open mints in Royalist western England, at Oxford and Shrewsbury and even further west. This extraordinary coin features a crowned and armoured half-length portrait of the King, holding a sword and an olive branch. On the reverse is a continuous scroll with the abbreviated motto from the declaration. This piece was struck with a goal to reinforce the image and the waning power of the King. The motto from the Wellington Declaration appears on many of his coins, however, in largest form on the famed Triple Unites, which carried immense ‘face value’.

The aftermath and the road to Parliamentary Monarchy

After a series of defeats from 1644-1646, the King surrendered to the Scottish forces at Newark. In June of the same year, his headquarters at Oxford were captured as well. On 30 January 1647, the Scottish forces handed the King to the English Parliament forces. Charles attempted to exploit the growing divisions between various opposition forces, bargain and negotiate with interested parties, although most of the efforts led to little or no avail. The King refused to accept his captors’ demands for a constitutional monarchy. He even managed to even briefly escape and forge an alliance with Scotland in 1648 to invade England. However, Oliver Cromwell’s New Model Army consolidated its control over England and crushed Royalists chances of winning the war, successfully defeating them at the Battle of Preston in August 1648.

On 30 January 1649, King Charles I was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason. After his demise, the ancient divine right of kings, that Charles I so eagerly believed as the foundation and justification of his power, ended across the land. The Commonwealth of England was now established as a republic. However, within a decade from Charles I execution and Cromwell’s rule as the Lord Protector, monarchy would be restored to Charles’s son, King Charles II. Upon Restoration in 1660, Charles II entered London in triumphal manner – England became a parliamentary monarchy in both name and powers granted to governing bodies.

---

Bibliography

Carlton, C. (1995), Charles I: The Personal Monarch, Routledge

Cust, R. (2005), Charles I: A Political Life, Pearson Education

Gregg, P. (1981), King Charles I, Dent

Loades, D. M. (1974), Politics and the Nation, Fontana

This article is written by Ema Sikic.

Coins of the Bible are some of the most popular of all ancient coins and appeal to a wide audience. They demonstrate how coins can connect with ancient literature in ways that other artefacts simply cannot.

At Baldwin’s, we are pleased to be able to offer a selection of Biblical coins relating to this fascinating era of history.

The Shekel of Tyre

A large and important trading centre in antiquity, the Phoenician city of Tyre was located to the north of Judaea. The city had issued an extensive coinage of silver shekels since the late 2^nd Century BC. These distinctive pieces featured a portrait of the Phoenician Herakles-like demigod, Melkart, and an eagle. Shekels of Tyre were adopted widely by the inhabitants of Judaea and half-shekels were used to pay the religious ‘Temple Tax’.

The first appearance of this important coin in the Bible occurs when Jesus instructs the Apostle, Peter, to catch a fish and pay the Temple Tax – the ‘four-drachma coin’ in fact being the Tyrian Shekel.

But so that we may not offend them, go to the sea, cast a hook, and take the first fish you catch. When you open its mouth, you will find a four-drachma coin. Take it and give it to them for you and Me.”

Matthew, 17:27

These large silver coins also gained notoriety as they were most likely offered to Judas Iscariot to betray Jesus Christ, as this passage recalls.

Then one of the Twelve, the one called Judas Iscariot, went to the chief priests and asked, “What are you willing to give me if I hand Him over to you?” And they set out for him thirty pieces of silver. So from that time on Judas looked for an opportunity to betray Jesus.

Matthew, 26: 14-16

Shekels of Tyre, crucially, bear the year they were issued. Coins dated to the year of the crucifixion of Jesus are highly sought-after by collectors of all disciplines, not only those seeking ancient coins. While the exact date of the crucifixion is uncertain (it is believed to have taken place between 30-33 AD), shekels bearing any of these dates always carry a substantial premium, as tangible, dated artefacts from this fascinating period of history.

The Tribute Penny

Render Unto Caesar. The ‘Tribute Penny’ is one of only a handful of coins which appear in the Bible. It is a key element of the gospels Mark and Luke, in which Jesus is confronted by the Pharisees;

Then the Pharisees went out and conspired to trap Jesus in His words… “So tell us what you think. Is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar or not?” But Jesus knew their evil intent and said, “You hypocrites, why are you testing me? Show me the coin used for the tax.” And they brought him a denarius. “Whose image is this,” He asked, “and whose inscription?”. “Caesar’s,” they answered. So Jesus told them, “Render to Caesar what is Caesar’s, and to God what is God’s.”.

Mark 12:13-17; Luke 20:19-26

The coin Jesus used may have been one of these: a silver denarius of the Emperor Tiberius (AD 14-37). His fierce portrait appears on the obverse, and a depiction of either his mother, Livia, or the goddess Pax, on the reverse. The denarius was an international currency at the time – circulating in all corners of the Roman Empire.

The Pilate Coin

Pontius Pilate is notorious for his position as the Roman Prefect of Judaea, ruling the province from AD 26-36 and ultimately overseeing the crucifixion of Christ. This bronze Prutah, issued in AD 29, was struck mere months before the event.

Minted in Jerusalem, in the name of Tiberius and his mother, Livia, the design is simple. The obverse depicts three ears of grain – crucial for the continuing growth of the Roman Empire. The reverse shows a simpulum, a ladle-like priestly implement used during Roman rituals. This may be interpreted as Pilate’s attempt at enforcing Roman religion in the province and would surely have been seen as provocative towards the Jewish inhabitants.  Two other designs were issued during Pilate’s tenure, also bearing Roman religious objects.

---

The symbols struck on coins were chosen carefully. They reveal the agendas and priorities of the rulers at the time and, more importantly, represent the ideals by which they ruled.

Mythologies of Roman and Greek deities were used to provoke associations between the ruler’s sovereignty and the divine powers of the gods and goddesses that appeared on their coins.

Zeus/Jupiter

God of the sky and thunder

Zeus was the son of Cronus, a Titan ruler overcome with fear of being overthrown by his offspring. As a result of this obsession, Cronus devoured all his children as soon as they were born but his sixth son survived and freed his siblings including Poseidon and Hades with whom he divided dominion of the world.

While he was married to Hera, Zeus had numerous mistresses  and many heroic offspring including Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Persephone, Dionysus, Perseus, Heracles, Helen of Troy, Minos, and the Muses.

Zeus’s symbols include the thunderbolt, eagle, bull and oak. As the ruler of all gods, he was the most important deity in official religion and came first when rulers paid their respects and religious sacrificies. This is why Jupiter features on numerous Greek and Roman coinage. However, his appearance on the coins of Alexander the Great is probably related to the story of his divine lineage, which his mother Olympias promulgated claiming that a thunderbolt stroke her womb when she was pregnant with Alexander, making Zeus his father.

Zeus seated left on throne on this Kingdom of Macedon silver drachm, holding eagle and sceptre, spearhead behind.

Hera/Juno

Queen of the Gods

Also the offspring of Cronus and Rhea, Hera is the sister-wife of Zeus. In the Greek mythology, she is the jealous wife of a king with numerous lovers and is thus seen as the protector of weddings and marital unions.

Hera is the mother of Ares, god of war; Hebe, goddess of youth; Eileithyia, goddess of childbirth; and Hephaistos, god of metallurgy.

Her symbols include the pomegranate, peacock feather and sceptre; however, she is represented on coins far less frequently than Zeus. The coin below depicts the cult image of Hera from her sanctuary on the island of Samos, Greece, where it stood since 8^th century BC and was renewed in Roman times. Worshippers came to the temple with offerings such as pomegranates and wooden votive.

Apollo

God of MUSIC AND POETRY

Apollo was the son of Zeus and known for being the god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the Sun and light, poetry, and more. He was the perfect embodiment of physical superiority and moral virtue and is depicted in many works of art to be the most beautiful of the gods. As the “averter of evil,” he is often depicted with a laurel, a bow and arrow, or a lyre in his hands.

He appears at intervals on Imperial coinage from Augustus to Carausius and then falls out use in the 4^th century.

Octavian considered Apollo to be his patron deity and built the famous temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill in Rome, close to his residence.  He was grateful to the god for his victories over Sextus Pompeii and Antony and Cleopatra.

Athena/Minerva

Warlike goddess of wisdom, war and patroness of the arts

Greek mythology portrays Athena to be the goddess of wisdom and strategy and one of the twelve main Olympian gods. She is the protector of the city of Athens, where her most famous temple – the Parthenon on the Acropolis is situated. For Romans Athena’s identity is linked to the Etruscan deity Minerva, who is said to have emerged from her father’s head as a fully developed adult dressed in armour. The Greco-Roman deity thus represented both wisdom and strength as she became evoked in times of triumphs and military successes.

She is often depicted with an owl, an olive tree or a snake, symbols of knowledge.

The coins of Corinth are famous for their imagery of Athena and Pegasos, tied to the myth of Athena helping the hero Corinthian Bellerophon tame Pegasos, the winged horse, with the help of the golden bridle and subdue him.

Hercules/Heracles

God of strength and virtue

While Hercules was the son of Zeus, his mother was a wise and beautiful mortal named Alcmene. Hera, the wife of Zeus, is said to have been so angered by Hercules’ birth that she sent witches and snakes to kill the infant. In an attempt to protect her child from these attacks, Alcmene abandoned Hercules in the woods.

Goddess Athena found the recently orphaned child and brought him to Hera for nourishment and it was eventually her breast milk that imbued him with the strength with which he is famous in all Greek and Roman mythology.

On the coin below from Tarsos there is a rare depiction of Herakles facing forward. He is wearing the lion headdress, a skin of the Nemean lion which had the impenetrable golden fur. Herakles stunned the beast with his club and strangled him to death.

Ares/Mars

God of war

In Greek mythology, Ares represent a wild recklessness in his approach to war—a striking contrast to his sister Athena, a wise and strategic general. While admired for his valour, the god of war is also seen as a dangerous force capable of savage destruction.

The Roman counterpart of Ares, Mars, is seen as more important and dignified figure however. Its mythology names Mars as the father of the founders of Rome and is second in importance only to Jupiter (Zeus in Greek mythology).

His attributes include spear, trophy and shield.

On this coin of Constantine I, Mars is depicted advancing right, holding shield and spear. This iconographic solution for depicting Mars was hugely popular and featured on numerous Roman coins throughout the empire. Mars is shown heroically nude, with his attributes, in battle stance.  Emperor Augusts was the first one to integrate Mars into the Imperial cult and created the cult of Mars Ultor – Mars the Avenger. Thereafter, the temple became a point of departure of magistrates into the military campaigns.

Hermes/Mercury

MESSENGER OF THE GODS, GOD OF COMMERCE AND COMMUNICATION

Also known as the god of boundaries and protector of travellers, Hermes was the deity who moved freely between the worlds of the mortals and the divine and served as a mediator to them both. He is often depicted in ancient art wearing winged sandals, winged cap or holding the caduceus, two snakes coiled around a staff, a visible sign of authority. As the god of traders and financial gain he is often depicted with a small money purse. The Romans adopted this figure into their religion through the identity of Mercury.

Hermes was adopted by only a half-dozen Roman provincial cities, appearing without name or title.

On the reverse of this bronze serrated coin of Septimius Severus, Hermes is pictured nude holding a caduceus and a coin purse, his main attributes as a deity of commerce and protector of traders

Poseidon/Neptune

God of the sea, storms

Poseidon served as a protector of seafarers and is regarded to have power over both land and sea. Like Zeus, Poseidon was the son of Cronus, a cruel Titan who ate his offspring in the fear of being overthrown.

After the fall of the Titans, Poseidon drew lots for the division of cosmos with his brothers and got the sea as his domain. He is depicted in art riding a chariot pulled by seahorses. His symbols include a a trident, he is often depicted in the company of sea creatures and sea nymphs.

He is depicted in art riding a chariot pulled by horses that could ride on the sea. His symbols include a three-pronged fish spear or a trident.

This particular coin relates to the myth when Poseidon entered a contest with the goddess Athena for dominion over Athens and produced the very first horse as a gift. However, the king refused him the prize and in anger Poseidon afflicted the land with drought.

Aphrodite/Venus

Goddess of beauty and love

Aphrodite was a symbol of perfect female beauty. She is often depicted nude and symmetrical and was said to be desirable and unattainable.

Many myths surround Aphrodite’s birth. While some say that she might have been the daughter of Zeus and Titaness Diona, other myths portraying her emerging from the waters on a scallop shell, fully-grown and lovelier than any woman before her.  

Although married to Hephaestus, the god of blacksmiths and metalworking, Aphrodite is romantically linked to many other Olympians, most famously Ares, but also Poseidon and Hermes as well as three mortals.

Julius Caesar chose Venus as the divine ancestor of Julio-Claudian Dynasty, with an epithet Venus Genetrix . On the coin below, there is a portrait of Julius Ceasar with his divine ancestor – Venus – holding a Victory and sceptre. In Rome, on the Forum of Caesar he built a temple dedicated to Venus Genetrix with her cult statue.